Journal Description
Polymers
Polymers
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal of polymer science published semimonthly online by MDPI. Belgian Polymer Group (BPG), European Colloid & Interface Society (ECIS), National Interuniversity Consortium of Materials Science and Technology (INSTM) and North American Thermal Analysis Society (NATAS) are affiliated with Polymers and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, PubMed, PMC, FSTA, CAPlus / SciFinder, Inspec, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Polymer Science) / CiteScore - Q1 (Polymers and Plastics)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 13.7 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.9 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2023).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in MDPI journals, in appreciation of the work.
- Testimonials: See what our authors and editors say about Polymers.
Impact Factor:
5.0 (2022);
5-Year Impact Factor:
5.0 (2022)
Latest Articles
Anionic Effect on Electrical Transport Properties of Solid Co2+/3+ Redox Mediators
Polymers 2024, 16(10), 1436; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16101436 (registering DOI) - 19 May 2024
Abstract
In a solid-state dye-sensitized solar cell, a fast-ion conducting (σ25°C > 10−4 S cm−1) solid redox mediator (SRM; electrolyte) helps in fast dye regeneration and back-electron transfer inhibition. In this work, we synthesized solid Co2+/3+ redox mediators using
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In a solid-state dye-sensitized solar cell, a fast-ion conducting (σ25°C > 10−4 S cm−1) solid redox mediator (SRM; electrolyte) helps in fast dye regeneration and back-electron transfer inhibition. In this work, we synthesized solid Co2+/3+ redox mediators using a [(1 − x)succinonitrile: x poly(ethylene oxide)] matrix, LiX, Co(tris-2,2′-bipyridine)3(bis(trifluoromethyl) sulfonylimide)2, and Co(tris-2,2′-bipyridine)3(bis(trifluoromethyl) sulfonylimide)3 via the solution-cast method, and the results were compared with those of their acetonitrile-based liquid counterparts. The notation x is a weight fraction (=0, 0.5, and 1), and X represents an anion. The anion was either bis(trifluoromethyl) sulfonylimide [TFSI−; ionic size, 0.79 nm] or trifluoromethanesulfonate [Triflate−; ionic size, 0.44 nm]. The delocalized electrons and a low value of lattice energy for the anions made the lithium salts highly dissociable in the matrix. The electrolytes exhibited σ25°C ≈ 2.1 × 10−3(1.5 × 10−3), 7.2 × 10−4(3.1 ×× 10−4), and 9.7 × 10−7 (6.3 × 10−7) S cm−1 for x = 0, 0.5, and 1, respectively, with X = TFSI− (Triflate−) ions. The log σ–T−1 plot portrayed a linear curve for x = 0 and 1, and a downward curve for x = 0.5. The electrical transport study showed σ(TFSI−) > σ(Triflate−), with lower activation energy for TFSI– ions. The anionic effect increased from x = 0 to 1. This effect was explained using conventional techniques, such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray diffractometry (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), UV–visible spectroscopy (UV-vis), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA).
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymers for Solar Cells Applications)
Open AccessArticle
Catalytic Pyrolysis of Polypropylene for Cable Semiconductive Buffer Layers
by
Xiaokai Meng, Hua Yu, Zhumao Lu and Tao Jin
Polymers 2024, 16(10), 1435; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16101435 (registering DOI) - 19 May 2024
Abstract
With the progress of the power grid system, the coverage area of cables is widening, and the problem of cable faults is gradually coming to affect people’s daily lives. While the vast majority of cable faults are caused by the ablation of the
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With the progress of the power grid system, the coverage area of cables is widening, and the problem of cable faults is gradually coming to affect people’s daily lives. While the vast majority of cable faults are caused by the ablation of the cable buffer layer, polypropylene (PP), as a common cable buffer material, has pyrolysis properties that critically impact cable faults. Studying the semiconductive buffer layer of polypropylene (PP) and its pyrolysis properties allows us to obtain a clearer picture of the pyrolysis products formed during PP ablation. This understanding aids in the accurate diagnosis of cable faults and the identification of ablation events. In this study, the effects of temperature and catalyst (H-Zeolite Standard Oil Corporation Of New York (Socony) Mobil-Five (HZSM-5)) content on the PP thermolysis product distribution were studied by using an online tubular pyrolysis furnace-mass spectrometry (MS) experimental platform. The results showed that PP/40% HZSM-5 presented the highest thermolytic efficiency and relative yield of the main products at 400 °C.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Combustion and Pyrolysis Kinetics)
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Open AccessReview
Polyelectrolytes for Environmental, Agricultural, and Medical Applications
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Martina Zuñiga Delgado, Francisca L. Aranda, Fabian Hernandez-Tenorio, Karla A. Garrido, Manuel F. Meléndrez and Daniel A. Palacio
Polymers 2024, 16(10), 1434; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16101434 (registering DOI) - 18 May 2024
Abstract
In recent decades, polyelectrolytes (PELs) have attracted significant interest owing to a surge in research dedicated to the development of new technologies and applications at the biological level. Polyelectrolytes are macromolecules of which a substantial portion of the constituent units contains ionizable or
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In recent decades, polyelectrolytes (PELs) have attracted significant interest owing to a surge in research dedicated to the development of new technologies and applications at the biological level. Polyelectrolytes are macromolecules of which a substantial portion of the constituent units contains ionizable or ionic groups. These macromolecules demonstrate varied behaviors across different pH ranges, ionic strengths, and concentrations, making them fascinating subjects within the scientific community. The aim of this review is to present a comprehensive survey of the progress in the application studies of polyelectrolytes and their derivatives in various fields that are vital for the advancement, conservation, and technological progress of the planet, including agriculture, environmental science, and medicine. Through this bibliographic review, we seek to highlight the significance of these materials and their extensive range of applications in modern times.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)
Open AccessArticle
A Numerical Model to Predict the Relaxation Phenomena in Thermoset Polymers and Their Effects on Residual Stress during Curing—Part I: A Theoretical Formulation and Numerical Evaluation of Relaxation Phenomena
by
Raffaele Verde, Alberto D’Amore and Luigi Grassia
Polymers 2024, 16(10), 1433; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16101433 (registering DOI) - 18 May 2024
Abstract
This paper analyzes the effect of crosslinking reactions on a thermoset polymer’s viscoelastic properties. In particular, a numerical model to predict the evolution of epoxy’s mechanical properties during the curing process is proposed and implemented in an Ansys APDL environment. A linear viscoelastic
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This paper analyzes the effect of crosslinking reactions on a thermoset polymer’s viscoelastic properties. In particular, a numerical model to predict the evolution of epoxy’s mechanical properties during the curing process is proposed and implemented in an Ansys APDL environment. A linear viscoelastic behavior is assumed, and the scaling of viscoelastic properties in terms of the temperature and degree of conversion is modeled using a modified version of the TNM (Tool–Narayanaswamy–Mohynian) model. The effects of the degree of conversion and structural relaxation on epoxy’s relaxation times are simultaneously examined for the first time. This formulation is based on the thermo-rheological and chemo-rheological simplicities hypothesis and can predict the evolution of epoxy’s relaxation phenomena. The thermal–kinetic reactions of curing are implemented in a homemade routine written in APDL language, and the structural module of Ansys is used to predict the polymer’s creep and stress relaxation curves at different temperatures and degrees of conversion.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Relaxation Phenomena in Polymers)
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Open AccessArticle
Development and Validation of a 1D Dynamic Model of an Injection Moulding Process and Design of a Model-Based Nozzle Pressure Controller
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Rasmus Aagaard Hertz, Ole Therkelsen, Søren Kristiansen, Jesper Kjærsgaard Christensen, Frederik Agervig Hansson and Lasse Schmidt
Polymers 2024, 16(10), 1432; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16101432 (registering DOI) - 18 May 2024
Abstract
A 1D model describing the dynamics of an injection moulding machine and the injection process is presented. The model describes an injection cylinder actuated by a dual-pump electro–hydraulic speed-variable drive and the filling, holding and cooling phases of the injection moulding process utilising
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A 1D model describing the dynamics of an injection moulding machine and the injection process is presented. The model describes an injection cylinder actuated by a dual-pump electro–hydraulic speed-variable drive and the filling, holding and cooling phases of the injection moulding process utilising amorphous polymers. The model is suggested as the foundation for the design of model-based pressure controllers of, e.g., the nozzle pressure. The focus is on using material, mould and machine properties to construct the model, making it possible to analyse and design the dynamic system prior to manufacturing hardware or conducting experiments. Both the presented model and the developed controller show good agreement with experimental results. The proposed method is general in nature and enables the design, analysis and evaluation of the machine, material and mould dynamics for controller design based solely on the physical properties of the system.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Injection Molding of Polymers)
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Open AccessArticle
A “2-in-1” Bioanalytical System Based on Nanocomposite Conductive Polymers for Early Detection of Surface Water Pollution
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Anna S. Kharkova, Anastasia S. Medvedeva, Lyubov S. Kuznetsova, Maria M. Gertsen, Vladimir V. Kolesov, Vyacheslav A. Arlyapov and Anatoly N. Reshetilov
Polymers 2024, 16(10), 1431; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16101431 - 17 May 2024
Abstract
This work proposes an approach to the formation of receptor elements for the rapid diagnosis of the state of surface waters according to two indicators: the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) index and toxicity. Associations among microorganisms based on the bacteria P. yeei and
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This work proposes an approach to the formation of receptor elements for the rapid diagnosis of the state of surface waters according to two indicators: the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) index and toxicity. Associations among microorganisms based on the bacteria P. yeei and yeast S. cerevisiae, as well as associations of the yeasts O. polymorpha and B. adeninivorans, were formed to evaluate these indicators, respectively. The use of nanocomposite electrically conductive materials based on carbon nanotubes, biocompatible natural polymers—chitosan and bovine serum albumin cross-linked with ferrocenecarboxaldehyde, neutral red, safranin, and phenosafranin—has made it possible to expand the analytical capabilities of receptor systems. Redox polymers were studied by IR spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy, the contents of electroactive components were determined by atomic absorption spectroscopy, and electrochemical properties were studied by electrochemical impedance and cyclic voltammetry methods. Based on the proposed kinetic approach to modeling individual stages of bioelectrochemical processes, the chitosan–neutral red/CNT composite was chosen to immobilize the yeast association between O. polymorpha (ks = 370 ± 20 L/g × s) and B. adeninivorans (320 ± 30 L/g × s), and a bovine serum albumin (BSA)–neutral composite was chosen to immobilize the association between the yeast S. cerevisiae (ks = 130 ± 10 L/g × s) and the bacteria P. yeei red/CNT (170 ± 30 L/g × s). After optimizing the composition of the receptor systems, it was shown that the use of nanocomposite materials together with associations among microorganisms makes it possible to determine BOD with high sensitivity (with a lower limit of 0.6 mg/dm3) and detect the presence of a wide range of toxicants of both organic and inorganic origin. Both receptor elements were tested on water samples, showing a high correlation between the results of biosensor analysis of BOD and toxicity and the results of standard analytical methods. The results obtained show broad prospects for creating sensitive and portable bioelectrochemical sensors for the early warning of environmentally hazardous situations based on associations among microorganisms and nanocomposite materials.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)
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Open AccessArticle
Dual Semi-Interpenetrating Networks of Water-Soluble Macromolecules and Supramolecular Polymer-Like Chains: The Role of Component Interactions
by
Anna L. Makarova, Alexander L. Kwiatkowski, Alexander I. Kuklin, Yuri M. Chesnokov, Olga E. Philippova and Andrey V. Shibaev
Polymers 2024, 16(10), 1430; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16101430 - 17 May 2024
Abstract
Dual networks formed by entangled polymer chains and wormlike surfactant micelles have attracted increasing interest in their application as thickeners in various fields since they combine the advantages of both polymer- and surfactant-based fluids. In particular, such polymer-surfactant mixtures are of great interest
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Dual networks formed by entangled polymer chains and wormlike surfactant micelles have attracted increasing interest in their application as thickeners in various fields since they combine the advantages of both polymer- and surfactant-based fluids. In particular, such polymer-surfactant mixtures are of great interest as novel hydraulic fracturing fluids with enhanced properties. In this study, we demonstrated the effect of the chemical composition of an uncharged polymer poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and pH on the rheological properties and structure of its mixtures with a cationic surfactant erucyl bis(hydroxyethyl)methylammonium chloride already exploited in fracturing operations. Using a combination of several complementary techniques (rheometry, cryo-transmission electron microscopy, small-angle neutron scattering, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy), we showed that a small number of residual acetate groups (2–12.7 mol%) in PVA could significantly reduce the viscosity of the mixed system. This result was attributed to the incorporation of acetate groups in the corona of the micellar aggregates, decreasing the molecular packing parameter and thereby inducing the shortening of worm-like micelles. When these groups are removed by hydrolysis at a pH higher than 7, viscosity increases by five orders of magnitude due to the growth of worm-like micelles in length. The findings of this study create pathways for the development of dual semi-interpenetrating polymer-micellar networks, which are highly desired by the petroleum industry.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Networks)
Open AccessArticle
Researching on the Effect of Input Parameters on the Quality and Manufacturability of 3D-Printed Cellular Samples from Nylon 12 CF in Synergy with Testing Their Behavior in Bending
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Martin Koroľ, Jozef Török, Peter Pavol Monka, Petr Baron, Beata Mrugalska and Katarina Monkova
Polymers 2024, 16(10), 1429; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16101429 - 17 May 2024
Abstract
The study of cellular structures and their properties represents big potential for their future applications in real practice. The article aims to study the effect of input parameters on the quality and manufacturability of cellular samples 3D-printed from Nylon 12 CF in synergy
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The study of cellular structures and their properties represents big potential for their future applications in real practice. The article aims to study the effect of input parameters on the quality and manufacturability of cellular samples 3D-printed from Nylon 12 CF in synergy with testing their bending behavior. Three types of structures (Schwarz Diamond, Shoen Gyroid, and Schwarz Primitive) were selected for investigation that were made via the fused deposition modeling technique. As part of the research focused on the settings of input parameters in terms of the quality and manufacturability of the samples, input parameters such as volume fraction, temperature of the working space, filament feeding method and positioning of the sample on the printing pad were specified for the combination of the used material and 3D printer. During the experimental investigation of the bending properties of the samples, a three-point bending test was performed. The dependences of force on deflection were mathematically described and the amount of absorbed energy and ductility were evaluated. The results show that among the investigated structures, the Schwarz Diamond structure appears to be the most suitable for bending stress applications.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering Applications)
Open AccessArticle
Brucine Sulfate, a Novel Bacteriostatic Agent in 3D Printed Bone Scaffold Systems
by
Jinying Li, Shi Hu, Pei Feng, Yang Xia, Zihan Pei, Jiaxuan Tian, Kun Jiang, Liang Liu, Xiong Cai and Ping Wu
Polymers 2024, 16(10), 1428; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16101428 - 17 May 2024
Abstract
Bacterial infection is a common complication in bone defect surgery, in which infection by clinically resistant bacteria has been a challenge for the medical community. Given this emerging problem, the discovery of novel natural-type inhibitors of drug-resistant bacteria has become imperative. Brucine, present
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Bacterial infection is a common complication in bone defect surgery, in which infection by clinically resistant bacteria has been a challenge for the medical community. Given this emerging problem, the discovery of novel natural-type inhibitors of drug-resistant bacteria has become imperative. Brucine, present in the traditional Chinese herb Strychnine semen, is reported to exert analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects. Brucine’s clinical application was limited because of its water solubility. We extracted high-purity BS by employing reflux extraction and crystallization, greatly improved its solubility, and evaluated its antimicrobial activity against E. coli and S. aureus. Importantly, we found that BS inhibited the drug-resistant strains significantly better than standard strains and achieved sterilization by disrupting the bacterial cell wall. Considering the safety concerns associated with the narrow therapeutic window of BS, a 3D BS-PLLA/PGA bone scaffold system was constructed with SLS technology and tested for its performance, bacteriostatic behaviors, and biocompatibility. The results have shown that the drug-loaded bone scaffolds had not only long-term, slow-controlled release with good cytocompatibility but also demonstrated significant antimicrobial activity in antimicrobial testing. The above results indicated that BS may be a potential drug candidate for the treatment of antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections and that scaffolds with enhanced antibacterial activity and mechanical properties may have potential applications in bone tissue engineering.
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(This article belongs to the Collection Antibacterial Activity of Polymeric Materials)
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Open AccessArticle
Impact Response Features and Penetration Mechanism of UHMWPE Subjected to Handgun Bullet
by
Yihui Zhu, Yang Song, Wei Wu, Jie Ma, Zhuangqing Fan, Yaoke Wen, Cheng Xu, Min Xia and Weifeng Da
Polymers 2024, 16(10), 1427; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16101427 - 17 May 2024
Abstract
Ensuring military and police personnel protection is vital for urban security. However, the impact response mechanism of the UHMWPE laminate used in ballistic helmets and vests remains unclear, making it hard to effectively protect the head, chest, and abdomen. This study utilized 3D-DIC
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Ensuring military and police personnel protection is vital for urban security. However, the impact response mechanism of the UHMWPE laminate used in ballistic helmets and vests remains unclear, making it hard to effectively protect the head, chest, and abdomen. This study utilized 3D-DIC technology to analyze UHMWPE laminate’s response to 9 mm lead-core pistol bullets traveling at 334.93 m/s. Damage mode and response characteristics were revealed, and an effective numerical calculation method was established that could reveal the energy conversion process. The bullet penetrated by 1.03 mm, causing noticeable fiber traction, resulting in cross-shaped failure due to fiber compression and aggregation. Bulge transitioned from circular to square, initially increasing rapidly, then slowing. Maximum in-plane shear strain occurred at ±45°, with values of 0.0904 and −0.0928. Model accuracy was confirmed by comparing strain distributions. The investigation focused on bullet-laminate interaction and energy conversion. Bullet’s kinetic energy is converted into laminate’s kinetic and internal energy, with the majority of erosion energy occurring in the first four equivalent sublaminates and the primary energy change in the system occurring at 75 μs in the fourth equivalent sublayer. The results show the damage mode and energy conversion of the laminate, providing theoretical support for understanding the impact response mechanism and improving the efficiency of protective energy absorption.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Behaviors and Properties of Polymer Materials)
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Comparison of Printable Biomaterials for Use in Neural Tissue Engineering: An In Vitro Characterization and In Vivo Biocompatibility Assessment
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Miguel Etayo-Escanilla, Noelia Campillo, Paula Ávila-Fernández, José Manuel Baena, Jesús Chato-Astrain, Fernando Campos, David Sánchez-Porras, Óscar Darío García-García and Víctor Carriel
Polymers 2024, 16(10), 1426; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16101426 - 17 May 2024
Abstract
Nervous system traumatic injuries are prevalent in our society, with a significant socioeconomic impact. Due to the highly complex structure of the neural tissue, the treatment of these injuries is still a challenge. Recently, 3D printing has emerged as a promising alternative for
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Nervous system traumatic injuries are prevalent in our society, with a significant socioeconomic impact. Due to the highly complex structure of the neural tissue, the treatment of these injuries is still a challenge. Recently, 3D printing has emerged as a promising alternative for producing biomimetic scaffolds, which can lead to the restoration of neural tissue function. The objective of this work was to compare different biomaterials for generating 3D-printed scaffolds for use in neural tissue engineering. For this purpose, four thermoplastic biomaterials, ((polylactic acid) (PLA), polycaprolactone (PCL), Filaflex (FF) (assessed here for the first time for biomedical purposes), and Flexdym (FD)) and gelatin methacrylate (GelMA) hydrogel were subjected to printability and mechanical tests, in vitro cell–biomaterial interaction analyses, and in vivo biocompatibility assessment. The thermoplastics showed superior printing results in terms of resolution and shape fidelity, whereas FD and GelMA revealed great viscoelastic properties. GelMA demonstrated a greater cell viability index after 7 days of in vitro cell culture. Moreover, all groups displayed connective tissue encapsulation, with some inflammatory cells around the scaffolds after 10 days of in vivo implantation. Future studies will determine the usefulness and in vivo therapeutic efficacy of novel neural substitutes based on the use of these 3D-printed scaffolds.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biocompatible and Biodegradable Polymers for Medical Applications II)
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Open AccessArticle
Liquid Crystal Orientation and Shape Optimization for the Active Response of Liquid Crystal Elastomers
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Jorge Luis Barrera, Caitlyn Cook, Elaine Lee, Kenneth Swartz and Daniel Tortorelli
Polymers 2024, 16(10), 1425; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16101425 - 17 May 2024
Abstract
Liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) are responsive materials that can undergo large reversible deformations upon exposure to external stimuli, such as electrical and thermal fields. Controlling the alignment of their liquid crystals mesogens to achieve desired shape changes unlocks a new design paradigm that
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Liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) are responsive materials that can undergo large reversible deformations upon exposure to external stimuli, such as electrical and thermal fields. Controlling the alignment of their liquid crystals mesogens to achieve desired shape changes unlocks a new design paradigm that is unavailable when using traditional materials. While experimental measurements can provide valuable insights into their behavior, computational analysis is essential to exploit their full potential. Accurate simulation is not, however, the end goal; rather, it is the means to achieve their optimal design. Such design optimization problems are best solved with algorithms that require gradients, i.e., sensitivities, of the cost and constraint functions with respect to the design parameters, to efficiently traverse the design space. In this work, a nonlinear LCE model and adjoint sensitivity analysis are implemented in a scalable and flexible finite element-based open source framework and integrated into a gradient-based design optimization tool. To display the versatility of the computational framework, LCE design problems that optimize both the material, i.e., liquid crystal orientation, and structural shape to reach a target actuated shapes or maximize energy absorption are solved. Multiple parameterizations, customized to address fabrication limitations, are investigated in both 2D and 3D. The case studies are followed by a discussion on the simulation and design optimization hurdles, as well as potential avenues for improving the robustness of similar computational frameworks for applications of interest.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling and Simulations of Smart and Responsive Polymers)
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Open AccessArticle
The Air Permeability and the Porosity of Polymer Materials Based on 3D-Printed Hybrid Non-Woven Needle-Punched Fabrics
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Victor Nazarov, Alexander Dedov, Fedor Doronin, Mikhail Savel’ev, Andrey Evdokimov and Georgy Rytikov
Polymers 2024, 16(10), 1424; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16101424 - 17 May 2024
Abstract
The possibility of controlling the porosity and, as a result, the permeability of fibrous non-woven fabrics was studied. Modification of experimental samples was performed on equipment with adjustable heating and compression. It was found that the modification regimes affected the formation of the
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The possibility of controlling the porosity and, as a result, the permeability of fibrous non-woven fabrics was studied. Modification of experimental samples was performed on equipment with adjustable heating and compression. It was found that the modification regimes affected the formation of the porous structure. We found that there was a relationship between the permeability coefficient and the porosity coefficient of the materials when the modification speed and temperature were varied. A model is proposed for predicting the permeability for modified material with a given porosity. As the result, a new hybrid composite material with reversible dynamic color characteristics that changed under the influence of ultraviolet and/or thermal exposure was produced. The developed technology consists of: manufacture of the non-woven needle-punched fabrics, surface structuring, material extrusion, additive manufacturing (FFF technology) and the stencil technique of ink-layer adding. In our investigation, we (a) obtained fibrous polymer materials with a porosity gradient in thickness, (b) determined the dependence of the material’s porosity coefficient on the speed and temperature of the modification and (c) developed a model for calculating the porosity coefficient of the materials with specified technological parameters.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Hybrid Polymeric Composites)
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Open AccessArticle
A New Approach to Carbon Nanotube Filament Nanostructuring for Additive Manufacturing
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Fedor Doronin, Mikhail Savel’ev, Georgy Rytikov, Andrey Evdokimov and Victor Nazarov
Polymers 2024, 16(10), 1423; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16101423 - 17 May 2024
Abstract
A new technique of additive prototyping filament volumetric nanostructuring based on the high-speed mechanical mixing of acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) copolymer granules and single-walled carbon nanotube (CNT) powder (without prior dispersion in solvents) is considered. The morphological spectra of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of
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A new technique of additive prototyping filament volumetric nanostructuring based on the high-speed mechanical mixing of acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) copolymer granules and single-walled carbon nanotube (CNT) powder (without prior dispersion in solvents) is considered. The morphological spectra of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of nanostructured filament slice surfaces were obtained and characterized with the original mathematical simulation. The relations of structural changes in the “ingredient-matrix” polymer system with dielectric and mechanical properties of the ABS-based filaments were established. The supplementation of 1.5 mass.% of CNT powder to the ABS filament composition leads to the tensile strength increasing from 36 ± 2 to 42 ± 2 MPa. It is shown that the greater the average biharmonic amplitude and the morphological spectrum localization radius of the slice surfaces’ SEM images, the lower the electrical resistance of the corresponding nanostructured filaments. The possibility of carbon nanotube-modified filament functional layers forming using the extrusion additive prototyping technique (FFF) on the surface of plasma-chemically modified PET substrates (for the creation of load cell elements) is experimentally demonstrated.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing and Customized Additive Manufacturing of Advanced Sustainable Polymers and Composites)
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Open AccessArticle
Lyophilized Emulsions of Thymol and Eugenol Essential Oils Encapsulated in Cellulose
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Koranit Shlosman, Dmitry M. Rein, Rotem Shemesh and Yachin Cohen
Polymers 2024, 16(10), 1422; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16101422 - 17 May 2024
Abstract
Efforts to tap into the broad antimicrobial, insecticidal, and antioxidant activities of essential oils (EOs) are limited due to their strong odor and susceptibility to light and oxidation. Encapsulation of EOs and subsequent drying overcome these limitations and extend their applications. This study
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Efforts to tap into the broad antimicrobial, insecticidal, and antioxidant activities of essential oils (EOs) are limited due to their strong odor and susceptibility to light and oxidation. Encapsulation of EOs and subsequent drying overcome these limitations and extend their applications. This study characterized freeze-dried (lyophilized) emulsions of eugenol (EU) and thymol (TY) EOs, encapsulated by chemically unmodified cellulose, a sustainable and low-cost resource. High-resolution scanning electron microscopy showed successful lyophilization. While the observed “flake-like” structure of the powders differed significantly from that of the emulsified microcapsules, useful properties were retained. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy confirmed the presence of EOs in their corresponding powders and thermo-gravimetric analysis demonstrated high encapsulation efficiency (87–88%), improved thermal stability and resistance to evaporation, and slow EO release rates in comparison to their free forms. The lightweight and low-cost cellulose encapsulation, together with the results showing retained properties of the dried powder, enable the use of EOs in applications requiring high temperatures, such as EO incorporation into polymer films, that can be used to protect agricultural crops from microbial infections.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polysaccharide-Based Materials: Developments and Properties)
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Open AccessReview
Organic Nanoparticles in Progressing Cardiovascular Disease Treatment and Diagnosis
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Alexandru Scafa Udriște, Alexandra Cristina Burdușel, Adelina-Gabriela Niculescu, Marius Rădulescu, Paul Cătălin Balaure and Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu
Polymers 2024, 16(10), 1421; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16101421 - 16 May 2024
Abstract
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), the world’s most prominent cause of mortality, continue to be challenging conditions for patients, physicians, and researchers alike. CVDs comprise a wide range of illnesses affecting the heart, blood vessels, and the blood that flows through and between them. Advances
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Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), the world’s most prominent cause of mortality, continue to be challenging conditions for patients, physicians, and researchers alike. CVDs comprise a wide range of illnesses affecting the heart, blood vessels, and the blood that flows through and between them. Advances in nanomedicine, a discipline focused on improving patient outcomes through revolutionary treatments, imaging agents, and ex vivo diagnostics, have created enthusiasm for overcoming limitations in CVDs’ therapeutic and diagnostic landscapes. Nanomedicine can be involved in clinical purposes for CVD through the augmentation of cardiac or heart-related biomaterials, which can be functionally, mechanically, immunologically, and electrically improved by incorporating nanomaterials; vasculature applications, which involve systemically injected nanotherapeutics and imaging nanodiagnostics, nano-enabled biomaterials, or tissue-nanoengineered solutions; and enhancement of sensitivity and/or specificity of ex vivo diagnostic devices for patient samples. Therefore, this review discusses the latest studies based on applying organic nanoparticles in cardiovascular illness, including drug-conjugated polymers, lipid nanoparticles, and micelles. Following the revised information, it can be concluded that organic nanoparticles may be the most appropriate type of treatment for cardiovascular diseases due to their biocompatibility and capacity to integrate various drugs.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanomaterials Template for Organic or Composite Polymers in Biomedical Application III)
Open AccessArticle
How the Digital Product Passport Can Lead the Plastics Industry towards a Circular Economy—A Case Study from Bottle Caps to Frisbees
by
Thomas Rumetshofer, Klaus Straka and Jörg Fischer
Polymers 2024, 16(10), 1420; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16101420 - 16 May 2024
Abstract
The Digital Product Passport (DPP) as a product-specific data set is a powerful tool that provides information on the origin or composition of products and increases transparency and traceability. This recycling case study accompanies the production of 2192 frisbees, which originated from collected
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The Digital Product Passport (DPP) as a product-specific data set is a powerful tool that provides information on the origin or composition of products and increases transparency and traceability. This recycling case study accompanies the production of 2192 frisbees, which originated from collected beverage bottle caps. In total, 486.7 kg of feedstock was collected and transformed into 363.2 kg of final product with verified traceability through all process steps via a DPP, provided by the R-Cycle initiative and based on the GS1 standard. This demanded a generally agreed dataset, the availability of technical infrastructure, and additional effort in the processing steps to collect and process the data. R-Cycle offers a one-layer DPP where the data structure is lean and information is visible to everyone. This is beneficial to a variety of stakeholders in terms of transparency. However, it does not allow the sharing of sensitive information. On the one hand, the DPP has a high potential to be an enabler for customer engagement, origin verification, or as a starting point for more efficient and advanced recycling of plastics. On the other hand, the DPP involves a certain effort in data generation and handling, which must be justified by the benefits. For small, simple packaging items, the DPP may not be the perfect solution for all problems. However, with a broader societal mindset and legislative push, the DPP can become a widely used and trusted declaration tool. This can support the plastics industry in its journey towards a circular economy.
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(This article belongs to the Section Circular and Green Polymer Science)
Open AccessArticle
Progress toward the Definition of X-ray Computed Tomography Accuracy in the Characterization of Polymer-Based Lattice Structures
by
Daniel Gallardo, Lucía-Candela Díaz, José Antonio Albajez and José Antonio Yagüe-Fabra
Polymers 2024, 16(10), 1419; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16101419 - 16 May 2024
Abstract
Lattice structures have become an innovative solution for the improvement of part design, as they are able to substitute solid regions, maintain mechanical capabilities, and reduce material usage; however, dimensional quality control of these geometries is challenging. X-ray computed tomography (XCT) is the
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Lattice structures have become an innovative solution for the improvement of part design, as they are able to substitute solid regions, maintain mechanical capabilities, and reduce material usage; however, dimensional quality control of these geometries is challenging. X-ray computed tomography (XCT) is the most suitable non-destructive metrological technique as it is capable of characterizing internal features and hidden elements. Uncertainty estimation of XCT is still in development, and studies typically use high-resolution calibrated devices such as focal variation microscopes (FVMs) as a reference, focusing on certain parts of the lattice but not the whole structure. In this paper, an estimation of the accuracy of XCT evaluation of a complete lattice structure in comparison to a higher-resolution reference device (FVM) is presented. Experimental measurements are taken on ad hoc designed test objects manufactured in polyamide 12 (PA12) using selective laser sintering (SLS), optimized for the evaluation on both instruments using different cubic-based lattice typologies. The results confirm higher precision on XCT evaluation in both qualitative and quantitative analysis. Even with a lower resolution, XCT is able to characterize details of the surface such as re-entrant features; as well, standard deviations and uncertainties in strut diameter evaluation remain more stable in all cells in XCT, identifying on the other hand reconstruction problems on FVM measurements. Moreover, it is shown that, using XCT, no additional evaluation errors were found in inner cells, suggesting that the measurement of external elements could be representative of the whole structure for metrological purposes.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials in 3D Printing)
Open AccessArticle
Synthesis of Room Temperature Curable Polymer Binder Mixed with Polymethyl Methacrylate and Urethane Acrylate for High-Strength and Improved Transparency
by
Ju-Hong Lee, Won-Bin Lim, Jin-Gyu Min, Jae-Ryong Lee, Ju-Won Kim, Ji-Hong Bae and Pil-Ho Huh
Polymers 2024, 16(10), 1418; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16101418 - 16 May 2024
Abstract
Urethane acrylate (UA) was synthesized from various di-polyols, such as poly(tetrahydrofuran) (PTMG, Mn = 1000), poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG, Mn = 1000), and poly(propylene glycol) (PPG, Mn = 1000), for use as a polymer binder for paint. Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) and UA were blended
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Urethane acrylate (UA) was synthesized from various di-polyols, such as poly(tetrahydrofuran) (PTMG, Mn = 1000), poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG, Mn = 1000), and poly(propylene glycol) (PPG, Mn = 1000), for use as a polymer binder for paint. Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) and UA were blended to form an acrylic resin with high transmittance and stress-strain curve. When PMMA was blended with UA, a network structure was formed due to physical entanglement between the two polymers, increasing the mechanical properties. UA was synthesized by forming a prepolymer using di-polyol and hexamethylene diisocyanate, which were chain structure monomers, and capping them with 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate to provide an acryl group. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy was used to observe the changes in functional groups, and gel permeation chromatography was used to confirm that the three series showed similar molecular weight and PDI values. The yellowing phenomenon that appears mainly in the curing reaction of the polymer binder was solved, and the mechanical properties according to the effects of the polyol used in the main chain were compared. The content of the blended UA was quantified using ultravioletvisible spectroscopy at a wavelength of 370 nm based on 5, 10, 15, and 20 wt%, and the shear strength and tensile strength were evaluated using specimens in a suitable mode. The ratio for producing the polymer binder was optimized. The mechanical properties of the polymer binder with 5–10 wt% UA were improved in all series.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in Polyurethane and Composites)
Open AccessArticle
Numerical Simulation of Mold Filling of Polymeric Materials with Friction Effect during Hot Embossing Process at Micro Scale
by
Faleh Rabhi, Gang Cheng and Thierry Barriere
Polymers 2024, 16(10), 1417; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16101417 - 16 May 2024
Abstract
The filling efficiency during the hot embossing process at micro scale is essential for micro-component replication. The presence of the unfilled area is often due to the inadequate behavior law applied to the embossed materials. This research consists of the identification of viscoplastic
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The filling efficiency during the hot embossing process at micro scale is essential for micro-component replication. The presence of the unfilled area is often due to the inadequate behavior law applied to the embossed materials. This research consists of the identification of viscoplastic law (two-layer viscoplastic model) of polymers and the optimization of processing parameters. Mechanical tests have been performed for two polymers at 20 °C and 30 °C above their glass transition temperature. The viscoplastic parameters are characterized based on stress–strain curves from the compression tests. The influences of imposed displacement, temperature, and friction on mold filling are investigated. The processing parameters are optimized to achieving the complete filling of micro cavities. The replication of a micro-structured cavity has been effectuated using this process and the experimental observations validate the results in the simulation, which confirms the efficiency of the proposed numerical approach.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Processing and Engineering)
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